Sound Waves To Control Brain Cells Through Sonogenetics Discovered

Salk scientists have developed a new way to selectively activate brain, heart, muscle and other cells using ultrasonic waves. The new technique, dubbed sonogenetics, has some similarities to the burgeoning use of light to activate cells in order to better understand the brain.

This new method--which uses the same type of waves used in medical sonograms--may have advantages over the light-based approach--known as optogenetics--particularly when it comes to adapting the technology to human therapeutics. It was described September 15, 2015 in the journal Nature Communications.

"Light-based techniques are great for some uses and I think we're going to continue to see developments on that front," says Sreekanth Chalasani, an assistant professor in Salk's Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory and senior author of the study. "But this is a new, additional tool to manipulate neurons and other cells in the body."

In optogenetics, researchers add light-sensitive channel proteins to neurons they wish to study. By shining a focused laser on the cells, they can selectively open these channels, either activating or silencing the target neurons. But using an optogenetics approach on cells deep in the brain is difficult: typically, researchers have to perform surgery to implant a fiber optic cable that can reach the cells. Plus, light is scattered by the brain and by other tissues in the body.

Organ transplant rejection may not be permanent

Rejection of transplanted organs in hosts that were previously tolerant may not be permanent, report scientists from the University of Chicago. Using a mouse model of cardiac transplantation, they found that immune tolerance can spontaneously recover after an infection-triggered rejection event, and that hosts can accept subsequent transplants as soon as a week after. This process depends on regulatory T-cells, a component of the immune system that acts as a "brake" for other immune cells. The findings, published online in Nature Communications on July 7, support inducing immune tolerance as a viable strategy to achieve life-long transplant survival.

"Transplantation tolerance appears to be a resilient and persistent state, even though it can be transiently overcome," said Anita Chong, PhD, professor of transplantation surgery at the University of Chicago and co-senior author of the study. "Our results change the paradigm that immune memory of a transplant rejection is invariably permanent."

To prevent transplant rejection in patients with end-stage organ failure, a lifelong regimen of immune-suppressing drugs is almost always required. While difficult to achieve, immune tolerance - in which a transplanted organ is accepted without long-term immunosuppression - can be induced in some patients. However, rejection can still be triggered by events such as bacterial infection, even after long periods of tolerance. It has been assumed that the immune system remembers rejection and prevents future transplants from being tolerated.

Biosensing Machine That Can Smell and Differentiate Odors Developed

Researchers from The University of Manchester and the University of Bari have developed a biosensor that can differentiate smells that are similar to each other. The machine can distinguish the smell of two similar objects such as spearmint or caraway.

The scientists have found a way to manufacture odorant binding proteins in quantities that can be used in the biosensor. Odorant binding proteins helps the nose perceive the different smells by reacting to the different type of chemicals around

The biosensor incorporate the proteins using a transistor. By doing so, the team were able to detect and measure the changes in current as the proteins reacted to odors. The system is incredibly sensitive with a detection limit that approaches that of the human nose.

The findings are published in the journal Nature Communications.

Imaging The Process of How Blood Stem Cells Take Root

Scientists at Stem Cell Research Program of the Boston Children's Hospital has successfully imaged the process on how blood stem cells work inside the body to generate blood.

Using see-through zebrafish and genetic tagging, the scientists got a direct visualization of how the stem cells take root in the body to generate blood.

Owen Tamplin, PhD, the paper's co-first author says, "Stem cell and bone marrow transplants are still very much a black box--cells are introduced into a patient and later on we can measure recovery of their blood system, but what happens in between can't be seen. Now we have a system where we can actually watch that middle step.

The steps are detailed in the video below.

This discovery can lead to new therapies and processes that can improve bone marrow transplants in patients that require it.

Stem cells are special cells in the body that can differentiate into a higher form of cells such as cell tissues and organs. There are different types of stem cells that are associated with a biological system such as heart stem cells. Pluripotent stem cells are cells that can differentiate into any type of cell regardless of origin.

Hematopoietic stem cells are stem cells that comes from the bone marrow ,umbilical cord blood, embryo, or in peripheral blood of the human body. These are the type of stem cells used to treat blood based diseases such as lymphoma and leukemia.

Studying the Actual Size of Undersea Giants

A group of scientists have decided to study and analyze the body size of 25 marine species. These species include the Great White Shark, the Giant Octopus, and walrus as well as lesser known creatures such as the Giant Tubes Worm and the Colossal Squid.

Their aim is to arrive at a more realistic data when it comes to establishing sizes of undersea giants and overcoming the human bias regarding this.

The scientists also wants to establish the relationship between size and varied factors such as lifespan, environment, and nourishment. Unlike mammals that have the same diet throughout their lifespan, marine species eat different foods as they grow. Another factor is metabolism which is the amount of energy required by the species on a daily basis.

Environmental factors were also considered that could give rise to bigger species, as well as situations in which a larger size would be beneficial. An example would be the Giant Clam. The additional nourishment from symbiotic photosynthetic bacteria allows it to reach sizes of up to 1.37 meters (4.5 feet). Another example would be Whale Sharks and Blue Whales which has the ability to support a migration and subsequent fasting to reach more plankton-rich waters when its habitat is low on food.

They gathered data by contacting fisheries, marine centers, and other scientists. "It's one part a databasing effort and one part historical research: double-checking museum specimens; talking with other scientists and collectors; and even checking eBay for specimens for sale," says Craig McClain, the assistant director of the National Evolutionary Synthesis Center in Durham, N.C. and the primary author of the paper.

A Game of Thrones: Butterfly Larvae Pretends To Be Queen Ant To Survive

The Maculinea butterfly larvae are parasites of red ants. It is brought into the nest by the ants thinking it is one of its own. Once in, the caterpillar is fed and protected by these red ants.

The Maculinea caterpillar was found to mimic acoustic signals emitted by the queen ant to fool worker ants into being adopted, protected, and cared for by the ant colony.

A group of researchers from the University of Turin in Italy released a paper on this behavior in the open access journal PLOS ONE.

Health Mechanics of Flavanols in Dark Chocolate Discovered

Chocolate, specifically its main ingredient cocao, is known to have health benefits. It is one of the most popular food today. On average, a person would consume ten pounds of it annually.

Although, scientists look at a category of flavonoids called flavonols as the reason for its healthy properties, the exact reason why has been unknown for years. Scientists now believe they have pinpointed the reason for this in findings that. were unveiled at the 247th National Meeting & Exposition of the American Chemical Society (ACS).

They explain that the abundant flavanols in cocoa such as catechin, epicatechin and polymers are consumed by certain bacteria in the stomach and convert it into anti-inflammatory compounds that are good for the heart.

Flavonoids (the main category of flavanols) can be found naturally in fruits, vegetables and beverages (tea, coffee, dark chocolate, beer, wine and fruit drinks). Flavonoids possess beneficial effects on human health as they are said to have antiviral, anti-allergic, antiplatelet, anti-inflammatory, antitumor and perform antioxidant activities.

Engineered Antimicrobial Peptides Developed To Kill Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria

With antibiotic resistant bacteria becoming prevalent, reaching high levels, scientists are studying ways to counteract and address this serious problem. Using the drug resistant bacteria that causes Tuberculosis, researchers are testing a new therapy using antimicrobial peptides to overcome this. This research was presented at the 247th National Meeting & Exposition of the American Chemical Society (ACS).

The TB bacteria is slowly coming up with resistant strains that pose a real serious health risk. Scientists have developed a new way to destroy these organisms and similar ones that have built a resistance to antibiotics; drilling.

Using protein engineered antimicrobial peptides (AMP), the outer membrane of bacterial organisms are broken down removing its structural support and protection mechanism. Just like drill bits, the AMPs drill into the thick walls of the cells killing the bacteria. Using three synthesised strains of AMP, lab tests show that all three of these antimicrobial peptides were successful in killing the Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. smegmatis bacteria .

This is just the first generation of AMPs produced and scientists are also studying another class of AMPs, picidin a and 3, to improve and expand its arsenal against this deadly trend.

Tiny Nanomotors Successfully Placed Inside Live Human Cells For The First Time

Scientists have successfully placed tiny synthetic motors in live human cells through nanotechnology. Using ultrasonic waves as the power source and magnets to steer, the nanomotors can zip around the cell and perform tasks.

The main obstacle for placing nanomotors in cells is the power source. Previous nanomotors needed toxic fuels to propel them. It wouldn't move in a biological environment.

The researchers at Penn State University and at Weinberg Medical Physics found that ultrasonic waves can be used to power these motors and that magnetic fields can be used to steer them.

The image above is that of a HeLa cell with some gold-ruthenium nanomotors inside it. The arrows indicate the trajectories of the nanomotors, and the solid white line shows its propulsion. There are several nanomotors is spinning at the center. HeLa cells are a line of human cervical cancer cells that are used in research studies. Image credit: Mallouk lab, Penn State University.

Bionanotechnology is fast becoming popular in medical and scientific research. Implants and devices hundreds of times smaller than the width of a human hair, can be integrated into cells. This technology can open up various medical applications such as surgery, deliver medication, and even eradicate cancer cells. Because of its microscopic size, bionanotech devices are non-invasive and results in fewer complications normal open surgery would have.

New Process Developed To Image How The Brain Forms Memories

Researchers at Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University have imaged the brain while forming memories on the molecular level. This was achieved by tagging fluorescent beta-actin mRNA molecules using a mouse model.

The tagged molecules were observed by the scientists in real time while brain cells were forming memories. See embedded video.

They note that the stimulated individual hippocampal neurons caused a rapid transcription of the beta-actin gene within 10 to 15 minutes. The hippocampus is the region of the brain where where memories are made and stored. These beta-actin mRNA molecules continuously assemble and disassemble into large and small particles, respectively. These mRNA particles were seen traveling to their destinations in dendrites where beta-actin protein would be synthesized.

The neurons connect to each other through spines of dendrites where long-lasting synaptic connections form between neurons in contact with each other. The Beta-actin protein appears to strengthen these synaptic connections by altering the shape of dendritic spines.

Computer Simulation Accurately Predicts Blood Vessel Growth

Bioengineers from the University of Utah created a computer simulation that accurately maps blood vessel growth. This can help in the further treatments to provide better blood supply to skin grafts and implanted ligament and tendon, as well as tissues damaged by diabetes and heart attack.

The image on the left in green, show real blood vessels growing in culture while the right image in red, is the computer simulation of the blood vessel growth. The simulation is based on the study and use of real blood vessels from rats.

Additionally, the top images show real and simulated blood vessel growth when vessel fragments are placed in an "extracellular matrix" of collagen with a relatively low density. The middle and bottom images show how blood vessel growth is impeded when they are placed in collagen matrix with medium and higher density, respectively.

The physical and mechanical properties of the collagen are highlighted by the simulation showing that a denser collagen matrix makes it hard for blood vessels to form a network. By accurately predicting the growth and spread of the blood vessels, bioengineers can prepare implantable tissues that already contain blood vessels that match a patient's blood vessel structure.

This technology can provide better treatment by replacing damaged heart tissues, reconstructing ligaments and tendon, and skin grafts to stimulate blood flow to promote healing of diabetic ulcers.

Regular Exposure to Mild Cold Conditions Promote Healthy Weight Loss

A study by researchers of the Maastricht University Medical Center in The Netherlands show that regular exposure to mild cold can be a healthy and sustainable weight loss regimen.

The authors of the study believe that exposure to cold temperatures affect the body's energy expenditure significantly. The body starts to generate its own heat to control body temperature.

Experiments show that regular exposure to cold weather, people decreased their body fat, acclimated to the temperature and shivered less even at a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius or 59 degrees Fahrenheit.

Heat production during this process can account up to 30 percent of the body's energy budget.

The authors believe that adapting to a colder climate can be a healthy way to regulate body fat and counteract obesity as well as have a beneficial side effect of conserving energy cost in home and building heating systems.

16 New Species of Wasps Discovered in the Nearctic Region

Alloxysta texana

Researchers have found 16 new species of wasps from the Nearctic region from specimens in the United States National Museum of Natural History and in the Canadian National Collection of Insects. Of the 16 discovered, seven of these have been described and illustrated.

Wasps are insects and cataloged under order Hymenoptera and suborder Apocrita. Contrary to belief, they are not related to bees or ants. Wasps prey on other insects. Some parasitic wasps are used as a deterrent against other pests in agricultural environments. Since they prey on just the pests, there is minimal crop damage caused by using them.

Most wasps are solitary and do not sting or attack humans. Only a few are aggressive such as the Yellow Jacket. Wasps are distinguishable from bees by their pointed lower abdomens and the narrow "waist," called a petiole, that separates the abdomen from the thorax. There are about 30,000 sub species of wasps identified to date.

The Nearctic zone includes most of North America as well as Greenland and the highlands of Mexico.

Studying 007 James Bond's Drinking Habits

Researchers studied James Bond's drinking habits by reading all 14 books and found that Bond drinks over four times the recommended amount. Based on this, the level of functioning he displays is inconsistent with the physical, mental, and indeed sexual functioning expected from someone drinking this much alcohol.

They also put into context super spy James Bond's preference for martinis that are shaken not stirred. They theorize that James Bond suffers from alcohol tremors that makes it difficult for him to stir.

The objective of this study is to quantify the spy's alcohol consumption as detailed in the novels by Ian Fleming. Based on the 14 Bond books by Fleming, James Bond consumes around 92 units a week which is four times more than the recommended amount. Out of 87.5 days, only 12 days were alcohol free and his maximum alcohol consumption in one day was 48 units.

Because of the level of alcohol intake, James Bond has a high risk of alcohol related disease such as alcoholic liver disease, cirrhosis, impotence, alcohol-induced tremor, and an early death.

Although James Bond is a fictional character, the authors of the study feel that alcohol consumption, being a global health problem, is portrayed by the character in a positive manner.

Duck-billed Dinosaur, Edmontosaurus Regalis, Had Fleshy Head Comb Like A Rooster's Crest

Reconstruction of duckbilled dinosaur, Edmontosaurus regalis.
Credit: Bell, Fanti, Currie, Arbour, Current Biology

Paleontologists discovered a rare mummified specimen of the duck-billed dinosaur, Edmontosaurus regalis. The specimen showed that the dinosaur had a fleshy comb on its head similar to a rooster's crest.

The comb is made of soft tissue. Soft tissues rarely fossilize because they do not contain any bone in them. Because of this, these features are unknown to exist in many extinct species such as dinosaurs. Scientists are not sure what the purpose of the appendage is, but they theorize it is for social signaling or sexual selection.

Edmontosaurus Regalis is part of a genus of dinosaurs called hadrosaurids or duck-billed dinosaurs. Edmontosaurus lived during the Cretaceous Period 73 million years ago and are about 40 feet long and 13 feet high at the hips. These dinosaurs weigh around 4 tons. One prominent feature of the dinosaur is that its mouth has around 1300 teeth that is constantly replaced just like a shark.

The discovery of the comb suggests that it is possible that other species of dinosaurs may have similar features.

Photosynthesis Links Quantum Mechanics and Biology

An experiment using lasers and electronic spectroscopy on how photosynthesis works is further explained with quantum mechanics. Plants and other living organisms like algae and bacteria convert light to energy through a process called photosynthesis. Light energy (usually from the Sun) is converted to chemical energy to fuel their growth.

Electronic spectroscopy studies the electronic structure of a model and its dynamics in atoms and molecules.

Plants and other organism uses the light from the Sun as their energy source. More than 10 quadrillion photons of light hits a leaf every second. These photons are captured by the leaf and is utilized to help in the plants growth. By utilizing principles of quantum mechanics, scientists can trace the photosynthesis process on a nanoscale and further its understanding.

This can help in developing technologies that can benefit applications such as solar energy cells and biofuel production.

Genetic Discovery Hints at Hereditary Risk of Esophageal Cancer and Barrett's Esophagus

Researchers at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and the QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute in Australia studied the DNA samples and medical data of more than 8,000 patients and have found four genetic variants in DNA that is associated with increased risk of esophageal cancer and Barrett's esophagus.

Barrett's esophagus is a disorder in which the lining of the esophagus (the tube that carries food from the throat to the stomach) is damaged by stomach acid and changed to a lining similar to that of the stomach. There is a small chance that people afflicted with Barrett's esophagus develop esophageal cancer.

Previously, esophageal cancer and its precursor, Barrett's esophagus are blamed on factors such as obesity, gastroesophageal reflux , smoking and an unhealthy diet. This latest discovery hints that the disease can also be hereditary.

Research Identifies 10 Basic Categories of Odor

Researchers have classified 10 basic categories of odor. These categories describe the fundamental descriptors for the sense of smell. The categories are fragrant, woody/resinous, fruity (non-citrus), chemical, minty/peppermint, sweet, popcorn, lemon and two kinds of sickening odors: pungent and decayed.

The sense of smell (olfaction) utilizes sensory cells of the nasal cavity. Odor molecules bind to specific sites on the olfactory receptors which sends the signal to the brain for processing. These signals are then interpreted by the brain into the odor categories described above. Just like with the sense of taste, these descriptors can be combined to form complex odors.

Properties of the perceptual basis set W. (A) Plot of normalized odor descriptor amplitude vs. odor descriptor number for the basis vector W1. Each point along the x-axis corresponds to a single odor descriptor, and the amplitude of each descriptor indicates the descriptor's relevance to the shown perceptual basis vector. Colored circles show the seven largest points in the basis vector, and descriptors corresponding to these points are listed to the right. (B) Waterfall plot of the 10 basis vectors constituting W, used in subsequent analyses. Note that each vector contains many values close to or equal to zero.
Credit: Castro JB, Ramanathan A, Chennubhotla CS (2013) Categorical Dimensions of Human Odor Descriptor Space Revealed by Non-Negative Matrix Factorization. PLoS ONE 8(9): e73289. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073289

Sleep Has Positive Effects in Learning Motor Tasks

Scientists are studying how sleep can enhance and reinforce motor tasks that is being learned during conscious periods.

Sleep is a regular biological activity where the body gets rest from physical activity and when the body starts to recover from sickness or fatigue. Healthy sleep also contributes to other positive factors such as emotional stress, healthy weight loss, and even cognitive functions.

A recent study on sleep shows that extending sleep time increases daytime alertness and pain sensitivity.

In this latest study, scientists used subjects who are learning a sequential finger tapping task (akin to playing the piano) and noted that those who had sleep afterwards performed better at the task than those who did not get sleep. The image shows the MRI of the brain and the Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) which is the part of the brain found to be involved in the learning of the task.

Developing More Efficient Hearing Aids Through OCH Transduction

Researchers are studying how the cochlea, located in the ear, processes and amplifies sound. This research could lead to better hearing aids.

Scientists have discovered that hearing relies on a mechanical traveling wave that is actively boosted by electromechanical forces in sensory outer hair cells (OHCs). By studying the process of OHC transduction, better devices that can send more accurate sound signals to brain can be developed.

Transduction is the conversion of a sensory stimulus (hearing, sight, taste, etc) to a sensory signal that the brain can process.

Just recently, scientists have also discovered a protein called TMHS that may be a critical component in converting soundwaves to electrical signals that the brain can process.