Stem Cell Recreates 3D Neural Structure of Brain's Cerebellum

Scientist have successfully coaxed undifferentiated stem cells to form functioning cerebellar neurons that mimiced the dorsal/ventral patterning and multi-layer structure found in the cerebellum.

The experiment conducted at the RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology in Japan applied signaling molecules to 3D cultures of human embryonic stem cells which prompted the cells to form into cerebellar neurons. These neurons self-organized to form the proper dorsal/ventral patterning and multi-layer structure found in the natural developing cerebellum. The image above are that of mature Purkinje cells (a type of neuron) that was grown from Human Embryonic Stem Cells.

The researchers noted that the experiment may lead to technologies and other discoveries that will be useful for modeling cerebellar diseases such as spinocerebellar ataxia; a progressive, neurodegenerative,genetic disease that has no known treatment or cure.

Neurons are cells of the nervous system that transmits information and signals to and from the brain. They the main component of the nervous system which also includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral ganglia (relay points and intermediary connections between different neurological structures in the body). Neurons are not made or replaced after birth. Scientists are looking at stem cell technology to address medical conditions and disorders that are affected by neurons since stem cells can differentiate into neurons.

Stem cells, specifically human embryonic stem cells, are cells that can change itself into a higher form of cell, tissue, or organ.

Their findings are published in Cell Reports.

New Brain Pathway Controlling Fear Memories and Behavior Discovered

Researchers at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL) dicovered a new pathway that controls fear memories and behavior in the mouse brain, offering mechanistic insight into how anxiety disorders may arise.

It is known that the amygdala is responsible for processing memory, decision-making, and emotional reactions. This covers fear memories and fear learning. This latest discovery which is published in Nature, extends the understanding further by finding out what are the controlling factors in and of the amygdala.

The researchers note that the processing of fear is stored within a distinct region of the brain. They found neuron circuit (called the PVT and CeL; see image) that controls fear. Disrupting the circuit results in a huge reduction of fear and strengthening it does the opposite. They also note that the chemical messenger used to transmit and control the fear emotion is BDNF, a molecule already associated with anxiety disorders.

The discovery of the neural circuit can be the basis for new therapies for treatment of anxiety disorders.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Found To Improve Memory

(c) Copyright: EPFL, Blue Brain Project

A study by the Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine find that stimulating a part of the brain with electromagnetic pulses in a process called Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation can improve memory.

The non-invasive process uses electrical current using magnetic pulses to target a region of the brain. This is the first time that memory functions of a brain can be manipulated without the use of surgery or of drugs.

By targeting a specific area of the brain in the hippocampus, they observed that TMS can be used to improve memory for events at least 24 hours after the stimulation is given.

The study, published in Science, used 16 healthy adults ages 21 to 40 (see video below). They received brain stimulation through Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) twenty minutes a day for five consecutive days. It was noted that the group performed better on memory tests as a result of the brain stimulation and that it took three days of TMS before they improved.

Neurostimulation is a process where neurons in the nervous system are stimulated to either restore functionality of a certain organ, control an organ, or induce/reduce a specific nerve signal within the system. This is done through micro-electrodes that deliver electrical signals to the neurons.

There are four types of neurostimulation; Brain Stimulation, Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS), Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), and Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS). Each of these types have been used to alter/improve brain activity in the past.

This recent discovery is the first to show how electrical stimulation can improve new learning long after treatment and may help treat memory disorders resulting from stroke, Alzheimer's Disease and other types of brain injury.

Working Memory - Studying How The Brain Performs Tasks Based On Memory

Credit: Badre Lab/Brown University

Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), researchers at Brown University released a study on how the brain, using working memory, chooses and plans a course of action or task or a series of task.

Similar to short term memory, working memory is a form of memory that keeps and uses information to complete a task or course of action. Working memory is stored in the brain for a limited amount of time; enough time to organize, plan, and execute the task.

The researchers at Brown measured the reaction time of 22 adult volunteers on how the receive, process, and execute a task using working memory. They find that the brain uses an area of the brain called the Caudate and the prefrontal cortex centered on the dorsal anterior premotor cortex. The image above shows the dorsal anterior premotor cortex lit up by MRI.

They also note that working memory uses similar uses similar circuits to those involved in planning motion.

Studying how working memory works helps in understanding brain cognition and also in finding how these parts of the brain affect behavior.

The Brain Rewrites and Edits Memories

A Northwestern Medicine study shows that memory is not as accurate as people might think. The study revealed that the brain rewrites stored memory infusing it with things from the present.

By conducting memory experiments on 17 men and women, the team used computers and an MRI scanner to observe how the brain worked during the experiment. They specifically show that memory is faulty, and that the brain can insert things from the present into past memories when those memories are retrieved. The study shows the exact point in time when that incorrectly recalled information gets implanted into an existing memory.

They also have observed that the hippocampus is the part of the brain when memory manipulation happens.

The purpose of memory, they note, is to assist in making a decision or reacting to a situation to better deal with it. The brain inserts present things not originally in the actual memory to make it more relevant to the current situation.

Brain Response Time Not Dependent on Number of Neurons in Neural Network

Anatomy of a Neuron

Neuroscientists using a supercomputer to run a simulation of a neural network, have noted that the response time of the brain is the same regardless if the number of neurons in the network is 50 or 1,000. The constructed computer simulation of the neural network showed that the simulated neurons responded with the same speed on both models.

Neurons are responsible for transmitting information and signals to and from the brain. These cells are the main component of the nervous system which includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral ganglia (relay points and intermediary connections between different neurological structures in the body).

There are around eighty to one hundred billion neurons in the human brain. These are interconnected to each other by around one hundred trillion synapses to form the neural network. This network transmits information through electrical and chemical signals between the body and the brain.

About 15% of the cardiac output, 20% of the body's oxygen, and 25% of the body's glucose utilization are the resource requirements of the neural network to perform efficiently.

The purpose of the study is to explain long standing questions on the neural network such as neural coordination, network behavior, size requirements, and response times (how the neurons are coordinated to trigger a movement at a particular point in time).

The neuroscientists at Vanderbilt University constructed the computer simulation using Vanderbilt's in-house supercomputer at the Advanced Computing Center for Research & Education. Even with the computing power of a supercomputer, the simulation can only model a neural network of up to 1000 neurons.

New Process Developed To Image How The Brain Forms Memories

Researchers at Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University have imaged the brain while forming memories on the molecular level. This was achieved by tagging fluorescent beta-actin mRNA molecules using a mouse model.

The tagged molecules were observed by the scientists in real time while brain cells were forming memories. See embedded video.

They note that the stimulated individual hippocampal neurons caused a rapid transcription of the beta-actin gene within 10 to 15 minutes. The hippocampus is the region of the brain where where memories are made and stored. These beta-actin mRNA molecules continuously assemble and disassemble into large and small particles, respectively. These mRNA particles were seen traveling to their destinations in dendrites where beta-actin protein would be synthesized.

The neurons connect to each other through spines of dendrites where long-lasting synaptic connections form between neurons in contact with each other. The Beta-actin protein appears to strengthen these synaptic connections by altering the shape of dendritic spines.

Increased Brain Perception and Boosted Senses Through Low-intensity Transcranial-focused Ultrasound

William Tyler focusing low intensity ultrasound on brain region responsible for processing tactile sensory inputs.
Credit: Jim Stroup/Virginia Tech

A study conducted at the Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute showed that low intensity, transcranial-focused ultrasound can increase the brain's sensory perception.

Ultrasound is a sound pressure wave that is at a frequency that is above the hearing range of humans. Ultrasound is used in various common application such as detectors, non-contact sensors, and specially in medical imaging.

Focused ultrasound is a procedure where ultrasound waves are aimed at a specific region of the body. It is a non-invasive technique to stimulate the targeted tissue or organ without disturbing the surrounding area.

In the study, focused ultrasound was sent to the cerebral cortex region to stimulate the median nerve. This area processes brain signals received from the hand. By doing so, scientists discovered that the test subject started to show significant improvements in the sensory perception tests administered to them. They increased their ability to distinguish the frequency of a chain of air puffs as well as note whether one pin or two pins was touching their skin at a very close distance.

This study is a positive step towards developing applications that can use ultrasound as a noninvasive tool for modulating brain activity.

Ankyrin-G and Kinesin-1 Protein Responsible For Movement Mechanics of Neuron's Sodium Ion Channel to Axon

Nerve Impulse

Scientists have discovered how sodium ion channels travel from the neuron to the axon to initiate central nervous communications to and from the brain. They observed that two proteins, Ankyrin-G and Kinesin-1, play an important role in the process. The ankyrin-G protein tethers the sodium ion channel to the axon while kinesin-1 transports it to the axon.

This process is fundamental in moving nerve signals along the central nervous system. These nerve signals, carried by the sodium ion channel, cover information like sense (touch, feel, taste, etc), movement, memory, and thinking. These signals, which are electrical and chemical in nature, do not fire up all at once, it jumps from axon to axon.

The image of a neuron above shows how the nerve impulse travels along the axon which is the long, slender extension of the nerve cell body.

Scientists have long wondered how the mechanics of the movement of the sodium ion channels, the protein responsible for the signals, from the neuron to axon works. These proteins have to be delivered to the axon or else nothing happens.

There are about 80 to 100 billion neurons in the human brain. These are interconnected to each other through synapses in which there are about 100 trillion. The neural network transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.

AAN Study Suggests Concussions May Be Linked to Alzheimer's Disease

A study published in the American Academy of Neurology medical journal Neurology® suggest that there is a link between concussion and Alzheimer's Disease.

The study involved 589 people who were 70 years old or older. 448 of the peole had no signs of memory problems and 141 experience mild cognitive impairment (MCI). They were all given brain scans and asked whether they had ever experienced a brain injury that involved any loss of consciousness or memory.

The study showed that for those who had MCI and experienced a brain injury, their levels of Alzheimer causing amyloid plaques were 18% higher than those with no head trauma history.

Similarities between concussions and Alzheimer's Disease have been observed by scientists before. But no conclusive proof have yet been found relating one to the other. This recent study proves that finding a definitive link between the two may be a bit complicated.

A concussion is a head injury where the brain is shaken inside the skull. These concussions can be caused by injuries to the head that affects the scalp, skull or brain. These injuries can lead to Traumatic Brain Injury (TMI) where patients can experience short term memory loss, disorientation, unconsciousness or even permanent damage to the brain.

In March 2013, the American Academy of Neurology released new guidelines in evaluating and managing athletes with concussions to address the rise of head injuries with concussions being on the top spot.

Running Improves Memory and Learning

Did you know that running can make you smarter? It’s true. It can also improve your memory and your test scores. That’s the latest news from assistant professor of psychology from the University of Illinois Justin Rhodes writing for Scientific American. “A growing body of evidence suggests we think and learn better when we walk or do another form of exercise,” writes Rhodes while citing a recent study that found “students who exercise perform better on tests than their less athletic peers.”

Rather than worry about the legendary “freshman 15” trend whereby new college students typically gain 15 pounds in their first year, many students are lacing up their running shoes and signing up for a local 5K (3.1 mile) run. And that’s where adopting a 5K training schedule comes in. The only way to experience the physical and mental benefits of exercise is to do it on a regular basis.

Omega-3 Fish Oil Helps Protect Against Dementia.

A Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine study suggests that Omega-3 fish oil helps protect the brain from alcohol related dementia. Researchers found that omega 3 helps protect the brain from against inflammation and cell death.

Previous studies show that omega-3 fatty acids or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are important for brain function, as well as normal growth and development. Omega-3 fatty acids include the nutrients called docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).

They have also been found to reduce the risk of heart disease. The American Heart Association (AHA) has recommended eating fish (particularly fatty fish such as mackerel, lake trout, herring, sardines, albacore tuna, and salmon) at least twice a week.

A study a year ago published in Neurology, shows that a diet lacking in omega-3 fatty acids, may cause the brain to age faster and lose some of its memory and thinking abilities.

Dementia is the loss of brain function that occurs with certain diseases. It negatively affects memory, thinking, language, judgment, and behavior. It causes a serious loss of global cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired or normal person that is beyond what might be expected from normal aging.

Time and Brain Coordination Improves Memory Preservation.and Reduces Forgetfulness

Credit: Smithsonian, Photo Researchers, Inc.

Neuroscientist have discovered that coordinated brain activity increases with time after memory formation which results in better memory preservation.

Memory formation in the brain is processed in three stages; encoding, storing, and retrieving. In the encoding stage, information is transformed or encoded by the brain through chemical and electrical signals. Information is then stored in different regions of the brain depending on its type. The retrieval process brings these stored memories into conscious awareness.

The actual process of how memories are formed, stored and then retrieved is still not fully understood.

In this new study, neuroscientists have found that brain coordination during the memory process gets better as time goes by. In their experiment, they noted that a newly formed memory in the test subjects is strengthened when the whole process is reapplied the next day.

The Science of Learning: Studying The Role of Inhibitory Neurons in the Brain's Learning Process

Neurologists are looking at how inhibitory neurons in the brain affects the brain during times of critical learning. Neurons are cells that are responsible for processing and transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals to and from the brain.

Twenty percent of the brain's neurons are inhibitory neurons. The remaining are excitatory neurons. Inhibitory neurons are neurons that are likely not to send information to the brain or central nervous system. This process of sending information is called an action potential.

An excitatory neuron is a neuron that is more likely to generate an action potential.

Scientists have discovered that during a person's younger years, when learning is crucial, inhibitory neurons are not as active to allow the brain to receive more information. As the person gets older, these neurons become stronger which slows down the learning process.

Developing More Efficient Hearing Aids Through OCH Transduction

Researchers are studying how the cochlea, located in the ear, processes and amplifies sound. This research could lead to better hearing aids.

Scientists have discovered that hearing relies on a mechanical traveling wave that is actively boosted by electromechanical forces in sensory outer hair cells (OHCs). By studying the process of OHC transduction, better devices that can send more accurate sound signals to brain can be developed.

Transduction is the conversion of a sensory stimulus (hearing, sight, taste, etc) to a sensory signal that the brain can process.

Just recently, scientists have also discovered a protein called TMHS that may be a critical component in converting soundwaves to electrical signals that the brain can process.

Genetically Engineered Protein, ArcLight, Allows Direct Observation of Brain's Electrical Activity

Scientists have genetically engineered a new protein called ArcLight to observe electrical activity in the neurons of the brain.

The brain receives and transmits information by using electrical signals. These signals travel through synapses and neurons. By tracking neural activity in the body in real time, scientists get to understand how the brain works.

There are different ways to monitor and observe brain activity such as MRI and fMRI which monitors the blood, water, and oxygen flow in the brain through magnets and radio waves.

Another way is to use chemical calcium detectors that are fluorescent in nature. As signals travel through the neural network, the cells undergoes a shift in the concentration of its internal calcium ions. When this change in calcium ions is detected by the chemical, it reacts to it by glowing.

With the development of ArcLight, scientists may be able to directly observe neural electrical activity in real time and even in parts of the brain that were previously inaccessible using other techniques.

Neurohormone Oxytocin Focusing Ability May Have Links To Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Researchers may have discovered a link between the neurohormone oxytocin and autism. Studies at the NYU Langone Medical Center show that oxytocin help the brain process information by filtering out background signals and increases the strength of desired signals.

From past data, they have noted that people with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have low levels of oxytocin and that mutations in the oxytocin receptor gene predispose people to autism.

Oxytocin is a neurohypophysial hormone present in mammals and acts primarily as a neuromodulator in the brain. Neuromodulators affect multiple neurons at once and are diffused through large areas of the nervous system.

Oxytocin is usually associated with parenting and social bonding behavior through psychological behaviors such as trust, pair bonding, and empathy.

Imaging Neurons While New Memories Are Formed Using mRNA Display and Microscopic FingRs Probes

Scientists have, for the first time, imaged neurons while new memories are being formed. This was done by using fluorescent markers on the synaptic proteins connected to the neurons. The scientists also developed microscopic probes called FingRs as well as a tracking technique, mRNA Display, to find and visualize the neurons during the memory formation process.

Neurons are the cells responsible for transmitting information to and from the brain. It is the core component of the nervous system. Each of these neurons are interconnected through synapses. Synapses are structures similar in function to telephone cables, that allow the passing of electrical or chemical signals between the neurons.

The image on the left (courtesy of Don Arnold), shows a living neuron in culture. The green dots indicate the excitatory synapses and the red dots indicate inhibitory synapses. An excitatory synapse is a synapse that increases the chance of an action potential occurring in a postsynaptic cell. An inhibitory synapse is the opposite, it decreases the chance of an action potential.

Neurons need a lot of the body's resources to perform efficiently. The metabolic requirements for these require about 15% of the output of the heart (cardiac output), 20% of the body's oxygen consumption, and 25% of the body's glucose utilization. The brain only takes energy from glucose.

There are about 80 to 100 billion neurons in the human brain. And there are about 100 trillion synapses connecting the neurons together. Looking at a portion of the brain, the size of a pinhead, one would find around 30,000 neurons in it.

The most number of neurons a person could ever have is during the first trimester as a fetus. Neurons are not made or replaced during one's life. Current developments in medicine have shown that neurons can be made and repaired using stem cell technology.

Visual Motion Intelligence Test To Measure IQ

A science study by researchers at the University of Rochester have found a link between the brain's ability to filter out background movement and its intelligence. Test reveals that those who automatically suppress visual background movement scored higher in standard intelligence tests.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient) is a score that is determined by a series of tests. The score reveals the value of intelligence a person has. The average score set for a specified age group is 100 (tests differ from age group to age group). About 95% of people score an IQ between 70 and 100.

A study by James R. Flynn showed a consistent increase in IQ over time. Known as the Flynn effect, IQ scores increases three points every ten years. Observations reveal that the Flynn effect is consistent across regions.

IQ tests are updated periodically to standardize the test scores to an average of 100 points. The latest study on the relationship between visual movement and intelligence may help develop a natural, non-verbal and culturally unbiased way of determining one's IQ.

Transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (TRNS) Enhances Math Skills and Ability in Brain

Researchers have found that a non-invasive and harmless process known as Transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (TRNS) enhances the brain's ability in math skills and ability for as long as six months.

Transcranial Random Noise Stimulation is a form of brain stimulation where brain functions are modified by using weak electrical current over the scalp using contact electrodes. TRNS is one type of transcranial current stimulation where the stimulation current is varied randomly.

The principle behind this type of brain stimulation is that the electrical fields generated by the electrical currents modulate the activity of brain neurons and can enhance certain brain functions.

TRNS is a relatively new process but recent studies have already shown enhanced brain performance using this technique.