Sound Waves To Control Brain Cells Through Sonogenetics Discovered

Salk scientists have developed a new way to selectively activate brain, heart, muscle and other cells using ultrasonic waves. The new technique, dubbed sonogenetics, has some similarities to the burgeoning use of light to activate cells in order to better understand the brain.

This new method--which uses the same type of waves used in medical sonograms--may have advantages over the light-based approach--known as optogenetics--particularly when it comes to adapting the technology to human therapeutics. It was described September 15, 2015 in the journal Nature Communications.

"Light-based techniques are great for some uses and I think we're going to continue to see developments on that front," says Sreekanth Chalasani, an assistant professor in Salk's Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory and senior author of the study. "But this is a new, additional tool to manipulate neurons and other cells in the body."

In optogenetics, researchers add light-sensitive channel proteins to neurons they wish to study. By shining a focused laser on the cells, they can selectively open these channels, either activating or silencing the target neurons. But using an optogenetics approach on cells deep in the brain is difficult: typically, researchers have to perform surgery to implant a fiber optic cable that can reach the cells. Plus, light is scattered by the brain and by other tissues in the body.

Stem Cell Recreates 3D Neural Structure of Brain's Cerebellum

Scientist have successfully coaxed undifferentiated stem cells to form functioning cerebellar neurons that mimiced the dorsal/ventral patterning and multi-layer structure found in the cerebellum.

The experiment conducted at the RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology in Japan applied signaling molecules to 3D cultures of human embryonic stem cells which prompted the cells to form into cerebellar neurons. These neurons self-organized to form the proper dorsal/ventral patterning and multi-layer structure found in the natural developing cerebellum. The image above are that of mature Purkinje cells (a type of neuron) that was grown from Human Embryonic Stem Cells.

The researchers noted that the experiment may lead to technologies and other discoveries that will be useful for modeling cerebellar diseases such as spinocerebellar ataxia; a progressive, neurodegenerative,genetic disease that has no known treatment or cure.

Neurons are cells of the nervous system that transmits information and signals to and from the brain. They the main component of the nervous system which also includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral ganglia (relay points and intermediary connections between different neurological structures in the body). Neurons are not made or replaced after birth. Scientists are looking at stem cell technology to address medical conditions and disorders that are affected by neurons since stem cells can differentiate into neurons.

Stem cells, specifically human embryonic stem cells, are cells that can change itself into a higher form of cell, tissue, or organ.

Their findings are published in Cell Reports.

Safe Medication To Treat Binge Eating Disorder (BED) Studied

Binge-Eating Disorder (BED) is an eating disorder where a person is compelled to eat large quantities of food over a short period of time even when the person is not hungry. This is done on a regular basis through regular binges.

Doctors at the Lindner Center of HOPE is studying the effectivity of the medication lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in decreasing the days patients with BED would binge eat, compared to a placebo. The medicine is currently being used for treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

This is a significant discovery since to date, there is no approved medication for BED. It has been noted that Binge-Eating Disorder is associated symptoms of mental illness and obesity. Randomized clinical trials on the use of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in treating BED have been conducted in 2011 to 2012 covering 500 patients with the eating disorder with positive results.

Ongoing clinical trials being conducted may lead to a safe and improved pharmacologic treatment for moderate to severe BED.

Stem Cells Help In Identifying New Treatments for Dementia

Researchers in Belgium are using induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology to create neurons that are targeted by dementia.

By studying these neurons, the scientists have found a defect that prevents normal neurodevelopment. Stem cells were taken from patients who has an inheritable type of dementia that is responsible for 50% of dementia cases for people below the age of 60.

Dementia is a neurological disorder that causes loss of brain function. Memory, language, behavior, judgement and how the patient thinks are affected by dementia. It is a serious loss of global cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired or normal person, beyond what might be expected from normal aging. It may be static dementia, the result of a unique global brain injury, or progressive dementia, resulting in long-term decline due to damage or disease in the body.

The most common type of dementia is Alzheimer's disease.

Usually associated with elderly patients, there are cases of dementia occurring to patients below the ages of 60/65.

The type of dementia that the Belgian scientists are studying is frontotemporal dementia. It is the result of damaged neurons in the frontal and temporal lobs which affects the patient's behavior, language, and emotions.

By reconstructing the damaged neurons using stem cells, the scientists identified the defective neuron pathway, the Wnt signalling pathway, that when genetically corrected and treated, restored the ability of the iPSCs to turn into cortical neurons.

This novel method may help scientist better understand the disease and create a cure or therapy for the disease.

Working Memory - Studying How The Brain Performs Tasks Based On Memory

Credit: Badre Lab/Brown University

Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), researchers at Brown University released a study on how the brain, using working memory, chooses and plans a course of action or task or a series of task.

Similar to short term memory, working memory is a form of memory that keeps and uses information to complete a task or course of action. Working memory is stored in the brain for a limited amount of time; enough time to organize, plan, and execute the task.

The researchers at Brown measured the reaction time of 22 adult volunteers on how the receive, process, and execute a task using working memory. They find that the brain uses an area of the brain called the Caudate and the prefrontal cortex centered on the dorsal anterior premotor cortex. The image above shows the dorsal anterior premotor cortex lit up by MRI.

They also note that working memory uses similar uses similar circuits to those involved in planning motion.

Studying how working memory works helps in understanding brain cognition and also in finding how these parts of the brain affect behavior.

The Brain Rewrites and Edits Memories

A Northwestern Medicine study shows that memory is not as accurate as people might think. The study revealed that the brain rewrites stored memory infusing it with things from the present.

By conducting memory experiments on 17 men and women, the team used computers and an MRI scanner to observe how the brain worked during the experiment. They specifically show that memory is faulty, and that the brain can insert things from the present into past memories when those memories are retrieved. The study shows the exact point in time when that incorrectly recalled information gets implanted into an existing memory.

They also have observed that the hippocampus is the part of the brain when memory manipulation happens.

The purpose of memory, they note, is to assist in making a decision or reacting to a situation to better deal with it. The brain inserts present things not originally in the actual memory to make it more relevant to the current situation.

DDT Pesticide Linked To Alzheimer's Disease

A study on Alzheimer's disease on 86 Alzheimer's patients and 79 healthy elderly controls show that the Alzheimer's patients have four times higher levels of DDE in their blood compared to the healthy controls. DDE is a metabolite (substance produced during metabolism) of DDT.

Although the cause of late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) is not yet clear, researchers believe that factors such as genetic, environmental and lifestyle can influence the development of the disease. The latest finding linking DDT to AD reinforces the link between the environment and AD.

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a pesticide used in agriculture and mosquito control. It was used in the United States from the 1940s until its ban in 1972 over environmental and ecological concerns. Despite the US ban, DDT is still being used in many countries. One major reason for its use is the control of malaria spreading mosquitoes.

DDT can last up to ten years in the body. People are at risk to continuous exposure to the chemical because it can persist in the environment for a long time and that food products that come from countries using DDT will contain traces of the pesticide. This can also explain why elderly people are more susceptible to Alzheimer's disease. Scientist believe the metabolite DDE accumulates in the tissues over the years. As people get older, the levels of DDE rises making them more susceptible to AD.

In 2006, the World Health Organization called for DDT's reintroduction to fight malaria in African countries.

New Process Developed To Image How The Brain Forms Memories

Researchers at Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University have imaged the brain while forming memories on the molecular level. This was achieved by tagging fluorescent beta-actin mRNA molecules using a mouse model.

The tagged molecules were observed by the scientists in real time while brain cells were forming memories. See embedded video.

They note that the stimulated individual hippocampal neurons caused a rapid transcription of the beta-actin gene within 10 to 15 minutes. The hippocampus is the region of the brain where where memories are made and stored. These beta-actin mRNA molecules continuously assemble and disassemble into large and small particles, respectively. These mRNA particles were seen traveling to their destinations in dendrites where beta-actin protein would be synthesized.

The neurons connect to each other through spines of dendrites where long-lasting synaptic connections form between neurons in contact with each other. The Beta-actin protein appears to strengthen these synaptic connections by altering the shape of dendritic spines.

Increased Brain Perception and Boosted Senses Through Low-intensity Transcranial-focused Ultrasound

William Tyler focusing low intensity ultrasound on brain region responsible for processing tactile sensory inputs.
Credit: Jim Stroup/Virginia Tech

A study conducted at the Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute showed that low intensity, transcranial-focused ultrasound can increase the brain's sensory perception.

Ultrasound is a sound pressure wave that is at a frequency that is above the hearing range of humans. Ultrasound is used in various common application such as detectors, non-contact sensors, and specially in medical imaging.

Focused ultrasound is a procedure where ultrasound waves are aimed at a specific region of the body. It is a non-invasive technique to stimulate the targeted tissue or organ without disturbing the surrounding area.

In the study, focused ultrasound was sent to the cerebral cortex region to stimulate the median nerve. This area processes brain signals received from the hand. By doing so, scientists discovered that the test subject started to show significant improvements in the sensory perception tests administered to them. They increased their ability to distinguish the frequency of a chain of air puffs as well as note whether one pin or two pins was touching their skin at a very close distance.

This study is a positive step towards developing applications that can use ultrasound as a noninvasive tool for modulating brain activity.

Ankyrin-G and Kinesin-1 Protein Responsible For Movement Mechanics of Neuron's Sodium Ion Channel to Axon

Nerve Impulse

Scientists have discovered how sodium ion channels travel from the neuron to the axon to initiate central nervous communications to and from the brain. They observed that two proteins, Ankyrin-G and Kinesin-1, play an important role in the process. The ankyrin-G protein tethers the sodium ion channel to the axon while kinesin-1 transports it to the axon.

This process is fundamental in moving nerve signals along the central nervous system. These nerve signals, carried by the sodium ion channel, cover information like sense (touch, feel, taste, etc), movement, memory, and thinking. These signals, which are electrical and chemical in nature, do not fire up all at once, it jumps from axon to axon.

The image of a neuron above shows how the nerve impulse travels along the axon which is the long, slender extension of the nerve cell body.

Scientists have long wondered how the mechanics of the movement of the sodium ion channels, the protein responsible for the signals, from the neuron to axon works. These proteins have to be delivered to the axon or else nothing happens.

There are about 80 to 100 billion neurons in the human brain. These are interconnected to each other through synapses in which there are about 100 trillion. The neural network transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.

AAN Study Suggests Concussions May Be Linked to Alzheimer's Disease

A study published in the American Academy of Neurology medical journal Neurology® suggest that there is a link between concussion and Alzheimer's Disease.

The study involved 589 people who were 70 years old or older. 448 of the peole had no signs of memory problems and 141 experience mild cognitive impairment (MCI). They were all given brain scans and asked whether they had ever experienced a brain injury that involved any loss of consciousness or memory.

The study showed that for those who had MCI and experienced a brain injury, their levels of Alzheimer causing amyloid plaques were 18% higher than those with no head trauma history.

Similarities between concussions and Alzheimer's Disease have been observed by scientists before. But no conclusive proof have yet been found relating one to the other. This recent study proves that finding a definitive link between the two may be a bit complicated.

A concussion is a head injury where the brain is shaken inside the skull. These concussions can be caused by injuries to the head that affects the scalp, skull or brain. These injuries can lead to Traumatic Brain Injury (TMI) where patients can experience short term memory loss, disorientation, unconsciousness or even permanent damage to the brain.

In March 2013, the American Academy of Neurology released new guidelines in evaluating and managing athletes with concussions to address the rise of head injuries with concussions being on the top spot.

Research Traces Link Between Beta Amyloid Protein, PirB/LilrB2 Protein And Alzheimer's Disease

PirB (red) is heavily concentrated on the surface of growing nerve cells.
Credit: Dr. Carla Shatz, Stanford University.

Stanford University School of Medicine researchers suggest that a link between the beta-amyloid protein and the PirB/LilrB2 protein may be a strong factor in the development of Alzheimer's Disease. The LilrB2 protein found in humans and its counterpart, the PiirB protein found in mice controls the visual system development in the brain. Research show that these class of proteins bind with the beta-amyloid protein which triggers the onset of Alzheimer's disease.

The research also shows that depleting PirB in the brain of the mouse model prevented the chain reaction and reduced memory loss. This discovery can lead to the development of treatments that can delay, treat or even prevent this this disease.

Alzheimer's disease causes brain cells to die and damages brain affecting its functions such as cognition, memory, and the control of the body's processes. Protein fragments, called plaques and tangles, stick together to form the Alzheimer's protein which stats to kill brain cells. The disease starts at the Hippocampus and ultimately destroys the whole brain.

The slow progression of the disease takes around eight to ten years from beginning to end which starts with memory loss. It then starts to spread and affect the part of the brain that controls balance and mobility. Ultimately, the disease starts attacking the area where breathing and heart functions are controlled.

Alzheimer's disease is a form of dementia that affects more than 5 million Americans. Currently there is no cure for the disease.

Omega-3 Fish Oil Helps Protect Against Dementia.

A Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine study suggests that Omega-3 fish oil helps protect the brain from alcohol related dementia. Researchers found that omega 3 helps protect the brain from against inflammation and cell death.

Previous studies show that omega-3 fatty acids or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are important for brain function, as well as normal growth and development. Omega-3 fatty acids include the nutrients called docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).

They have also been found to reduce the risk of heart disease. The American Heart Association (AHA) has recommended eating fish (particularly fatty fish such as mackerel, lake trout, herring, sardines, albacore tuna, and salmon) at least twice a week.

A study a year ago published in Neurology, shows that a diet lacking in omega-3 fatty acids, may cause the brain to age faster and lose some of its memory and thinking abilities.

Dementia is the loss of brain function that occurs with certain diseases. It negatively affects memory, thinking, language, judgment, and behavior. It causes a serious loss of global cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired or normal person that is beyond what might be expected from normal aging.

Time and Brain Coordination Improves Memory Preservation.and Reduces Forgetfulness

Credit: Smithsonian, Photo Researchers, Inc.

Neuroscientist have discovered that coordinated brain activity increases with time after memory formation which results in better memory preservation.

Memory formation in the brain is processed in three stages; encoding, storing, and retrieving. In the encoding stage, information is transformed or encoded by the brain through chemical and electrical signals. Information is then stored in different regions of the brain depending on its type. The retrieval process brings these stored memories into conscious awareness.

The actual process of how memories are formed, stored and then retrieved is still not fully understood.

In this new study, neuroscientists have found that brain coordination during the memory process gets better as time goes by. In their experiment, they noted that a newly formed memory in the test subjects is strengthened when the whole process is reapplied the next day.

The Science of Learning: Studying The Role of Inhibitory Neurons in the Brain's Learning Process

Neurologists are looking at how inhibitory neurons in the brain affects the brain during times of critical learning. Neurons are cells that are responsible for processing and transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals to and from the brain.

Twenty percent of the brain's neurons are inhibitory neurons. The remaining are excitatory neurons. Inhibitory neurons are neurons that are likely not to send information to the brain or central nervous system. This process of sending information is called an action potential.

An excitatory neuron is a neuron that is more likely to generate an action potential.

Scientists have discovered that during a person's younger years, when learning is crucial, inhibitory neurons are not as active to allow the brain to receive more information. As the person gets older, these neurons become stronger which slows down the learning process.

Sleep Has Positive Effects in Learning Motor Tasks

Scientists are studying how sleep can enhance and reinforce motor tasks that is being learned during conscious periods.

Sleep is a regular biological activity where the body gets rest from physical activity and when the body starts to recover from sickness or fatigue. Healthy sleep also contributes to other positive factors such as emotional stress, healthy weight loss, and even cognitive functions.

A recent study on sleep shows that extending sleep time increases daytime alertness and pain sensitivity.

In this latest study, scientists used subjects who are learning a sequential finger tapping task (akin to playing the piano) and noted that those who had sleep afterwards performed better at the task than those who did not get sleep. The image shows the MRI of the brain and the Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) which is the part of the brain found to be involved in the learning of the task.

Developing More Efficient Hearing Aids Through OCH Transduction

Researchers are studying how the cochlea, located in the ear, processes and amplifies sound. This research could lead to better hearing aids.

Scientists have discovered that hearing relies on a mechanical traveling wave that is actively boosted by electromechanical forces in sensory outer hair cells (OHCs). By studying the process of OHC transduction, better devices that can send more accurate sound signals to brain can be developed.

Transduction is the conversion of a sensory stimulus (hearing, sight, taste, etc) to a sensory signal that the brain can process.

Just recently, scientists have also discovered a protein called TMHS that may be a critical component in converting soundwaves to electrical signals that the brain can process.

Genetically Engineered Protein, ArcLight, Allows Direct Observation of Brain's Electrical Activity

Scientists have genetically engineered a new protein called ArcLight to observe electrical activity in the neurons of the brain.

The brain receives and transmits information by using electrical signals. These signals travel through synapses and neurons. By tracking neural activity in the body in real time, scientists get to understand how the brain works.

There are different ways to monitor and observe brain activity such as MRI and fMRI which monitors the blood, water, and oxygen flow in the brain through magnets and radio waves.

Another way is to use chemical calcium detectors that are fluorescent in nature. As signals travel through the neural network, the cells undergoes a shift in the concentration of its internal calcium ions. When this change in calcium ions is detected by the chemical, it reacts to it by glowing.

With the development of ArcLight, scientists may be able to directly observe neural electrical activity in real time and even in parts of the brain that were previously inaccessible using other techniques.

Neurohormone Oxytocin Focusing Ability May Have Links To Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Researchers may have discovered a link between the neurohormone oxytocin and autism. Studies at the NYU Langone Medical Center show that oxytocin help the brain process information by filtering out background signals and increases the strength of desired signals.

From past data, they have noted that people with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have low levels of oxytocin and that mutations in the oxytocin receptor gene predispose people to autism.

Oxytocin is a neurohypophysial hormone present in mammals and acts primarily as a neuromodulator in the brain. Neuromodulators affect multiple neurons at once and are diffused through large areas of the nervous system.

Oxytocin is usually associated with parenting and social bonding behavior through psychological behaviors such as trust, pair bonding, and empathy.

Brain Waves From 12,000 Brain Neurons Simulated In A Computer

(c) Copyright: EPFL, Blue Brain Project

The Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) Blue Brain Project in Switzerland and the Allen Institute for Brain Science in the United States have built a computer model that simulates 12,000 neurons. This allows the scientists to learn more about brain waves and how neurons work and interact with each other.

The Computer visualization on the left shows the brain waves produced by 100 detailed models of nerve cells. The strength of the signal is represented by the following color scheme: green = weak signal, yellow = medium, red = strong.

Neurons behave differently from how computer chips operate. With computer chips, a steady stream of power is fed through it at a steady rate. Neurons transmit and process information that are sent in spikes.

The Blue Brain Project aims to complete a working computer model of the human brain. Although the project has simulated 12,000 neurons, it is still a far stride from a complete brain which has billions of neurons comprising the nervous system.